Tag: python

You’ve been programming in Python for a while, and although you know your way around dicts, lists, tuples, sets, functions, and classes, you have a feeling your Python knowledge is not where it should be. You have heard about “pythonic” code and yours falls short. You’re an intermediate Python programmer. You want to move to advanced. 

This intermediate zone is a common place for data scientists to sit. So many of us are self-taught programmers using our programming languages as a means to a data analysis end. As a result, we are less likely to take a deep dive into our programming language and we’re less exposed to the best practices of software engineering.

If this is where you are in your Python journey, then I highly recommend you take a look at the book “Fluent Python” by Luciano Ramalho. As an intermediate Python programmer, I’m the target audience for this book and it exceeded my expectations. 

The book consists of 21 chapters divided into five broad sections:

• Data Structures: Covers the fundamental data structures within Python and their intricacies. This includes “sequences, mappings, and sets, as well as the str versus bytes split”. Some of this will be review for intermediate Python users, but it covers the topics in-depth and explains the counterintuitive twists of some of these data structures.

• Functions as Objects: Describes the implications of functions being “first class objects” in Python (which essentially means functions to be passed around as arguments and returned from functions). This influences how some design patterns are implemented (or not required to be implemented) in Python. First class functions are related to the powerful function decorator feature which is also covered in this section.

• Object-Oriented Idioms: A dive into various concepts related to object-oriented python programming, including object references, mutability, and recycling, using protocols and abstract base classes, inheritance, and operator overloading, among other topics. 

• Control Flow: Covers a variety of control flow structures and concepts in Python, including iterables, context managers, coroutines, and concurrency. 

• Metaprogramming: Metaprogramming in Python means creating or customizing classes at runtime. This section covers dynamic attributes and properties, descriptors, and class metaprogramming (including creating or modifying classes with functions, class decorators, and metaclasses). 

There are a few things I really liked about this book:

• Advanced Target Market: There are lots of materials for Python beginners, but not nearly as many self-contained, organized resources that explain advanced material for intermediate users. This book helps fill that gap. 

• Lots of great recommended resources: Each chapter has a “further reading” section with references to resources to expand your knowledge on the topic. The author not only links to these resources, but provides a brief summary and how they fit into the chapter’s material. Working through some of these references will be my game plan for the next several years as I work to propel my Python skills further. 

• It’s opinionated and entertaining: The end of each chapter has a “soapbox” section providing an entertaining, informative, and opinionated aside about the subject. Reading this section feels like having a chat over a beer with a top expert of their field. It provides context and injects some passion into topics that can be dry. These opinionated sections are clearly quarantined from the rest of the book, so it never feels like the author’s personal tastes are pushed on you. I wish every programming book had a section like this.

• It pushes your understanding. I thought I was quite knowledgeable about Python and expected to work through this book quickly. I was wrong – it was slow reading and I plan on doing another deep read-through in 2020 to absorb more of the material. 

So check it out. Also, check out an Anki deck I created that you can use as a complement to the book, which should help you to add insights that you want to commit to memory forever (here is a short guide on how to use my data science Anki decks). 

Fluent Python Chapter Overview

Part 1: Prologue

• Chapter 1: The Python Data Model. Provides a background into the data model that makes Python such a great language to code, allowing experienced Python programmers to anticipate features in new packages / APIs before even looking at the documentation. 

Part 2: Data Structures

• Chapter 2: An Array of Sequences. Sequences includes strings, bytes, lists, tuples, among other objects and are one of the most powerful concepts in Python. Python provides a common interface for iteration, slicing, sorting, and concatenating these objects and understanding the sequence types available and how to use them is key to writing Pythonic code.

• Chapter 3: Dictionaries and Sets. Dictionaries are not only widely used by Python programmers – they are widely used in the actual implementation code of the language. This chapter goes in-depth into the intricacies of dictionaries so you can make the best use of them. 

• Chapter 4: Text versus Bytes. Python 3 made some big changes in its treatment of strings and bytes, getting rid of implicit conversion of bytes to Unicode. This chapter covers the details to understand Python 3 Unicode strings, binary sequences and encodings to convert from one to the other. 

Part 3: Functions as Objects

• Chapter 5: First Class Functions. Python treats functions as first class objects, which means you can pass them around as objects. For example, you can pass a function as an argument to a function or return a function as the return value of another function. This chapter explores the implications of this power.

• Chapter 6: Design Patterns with First Class Functions. Many of the design patterns discussed in classic design patterns books change when you’re dealing with a dynamic programming language like Python. This chapter explores those patterns and how they look in Python’s first class function environment. 

• Chapter 7: Function Decorators and Closures. Decorators are a powerful feature in Python that lets you augment the behaviour of functions. 

Part 4: Object-Oriented Idioms

• Chapter 8: Object References, Mutability, and Recycling. This chapter covers details around references, object identity, value, aliasing, garbage collection, and the del command.

• Chapter 9: A Pythonic Object. A continuation of Chapter 1, providing hands-on examples of the power of the Python data model and giving you a taste of how to build a “Pythonic” object by building a class representing mathematical vectors.

• Chapter 10: Sequence Hacking, Hashing, and Slicing. An expansion of the Pythonic Vector object built in Chapter 9, adding support a variety of standard Python sequence operations, such as slicing.

• Chapter 11: Interfaces – From Protocols to ABCs. Building interfaces for a language like Python is typically different than C++ or Java. Specifically, Abstract Base Classes (ABCs) are less common in Python and the approach to interfaces is typically less strict, using “duck typing” and “protocols”. This chapter describes the various approaches to defining an interface in Python and food for thought about when to use each approach.

• Chapter 12: Inheritance – For Good or For Worse. Subclassing, with a focus on multiple inheritance, and the difficulties of subclassing the built-in types in Python.

• Chapter 13: Operator Overloading – Doing it Right. Operator overloading lets your objects work with Python operators such as |, +, &, -, ~, and more. This chapter covers some restrictions Python places on overloading these operators and shows how to properly overload the various types of operators available.

Part 5: Control Flow

• Chapter 14: Iterables, Iterators, and Generators. The iterator pattern from the classic design pattern texts is built into Python, so you never have to implement it yourself. This chapter studies iterables and related constructs in Python.

• Chapter 15: Context Managers, and else Blocks. The bulk of this chapter covers the with statement (and related concepts), which is a powerful tool for automatically building up a temporary context and tearing it down after you’re done with it (e.g. opening / closing a file or database). 

• Chapter 16: Coroutines. This chapter describes coroutines, how they evolved from generators, and how to work with them, including an example of using coroutines for discrete event simulation (simulating a taxi fleet). 

• Chapter 17: Concurrency with Futures. This chapter teaches the concept of futures as “objects representing the asynchronous execution of an operation”. It also focuses on the concurrent.futures library, for which futures are foundational concept. 

• Chapter 18: Concurrency with asyncio. A dive into the asyncio package that implements concurrency and is part of the standard library. 

Part 6: Metaprogramming

• Chapter 19: Dynamic Attributes and Properties. In programming languages like Java, it’s considered bad practice to let clients directly access a class public attributes. In Python, this is actually a good idea thanks to properties and dynamic attributes that can control attribute access. 

• Chapter 20: Attribute Descriptors. Descriptors are like properties since they let you define access logic for attributes; however, descriptors let you generalize and reuse the access logic across multiple attributes.

• Chapter 21: Class Metaprogramming. Metaprogramming in Python means creating or customizing classes at runtime. Python allows you to do this by creating classes with functions, inspecting or changing classes with class decorators, and using metaclasses to create whole new categories of classes. 

You can access an Anki flashcard deck I created to accompany Fluent Python here.

Once in a while as a data scientist, you may need to create PDF reports of your analyses. This seems somewhat “old school” nowadays, but here are a couple situations why you might want to consider it:

• You need to make reports that are easily printable. People often want “hard copies” of particular reports they are running and don’t want to reproduce everything they did in an interactive dashboard.
• You need to match existing reporting formats: If you’re replacing a legacy reporting system, it’s often a good idea to try to match existing reporting methods as your first step. This means that if the legacy system used PDF reporting, then you should strongly consider creating this functionality in the replacement system. This is often important for getting buy-in from people comfortable with the old system.

I recently needed to do PDF reporting in a work assignment. The particular solution I came up with uses two main tools:

• Jinja2 templates to generate HTML files of the reports that I need.
• Pdfkit to convert these reports to PDF.
• You also need to install a tool called wkhtmltopdf for pdfkit to work.

We’ll install our required packages with the following commands:

pip install pdfkit
pip install Jinja2

Then follow instructions here to install wkhtmltopdf.

Primer on Jinja2 Templates

Jinja2 is a great tool to become familiar with, especially if you do web development in Python. In short, it lets you automatically generate text documents by programmatically filling in placeholder values that you assign to text file templates. It’s a very flexible tool, used widely in Python web applications to generate HTML for users. You can think of it like super high-powered string substitution.

We’ll be using Jinja2 to generate HTML files of our reports that we will convert into PDFs with other tools. Keep in mind that Jinja2 can come in handy for other reporting applications, like sending automated emails or creating reports in other text file formats.

There are two main components of working with Jinja2:

• Creating the text file Jinja2 templates that contain placeholder values. In these templates, you can use a variety of Jinja2 syntax features that allow you to adjust the look of the file and how it loads the placeholder data.
• Writing the python code that assigns the placeholder values to your Jinja2 templates and renders a new text string according to these values.

Let’s create a simple template just as an illustration. This template will simply be a text file that prints out the value of a name. All you have to do it create a text file (let’s call it name.txt). Then in this file, simply add one line:

Your name is: {{ name }}

Here, ‘name’ is the name of the python variable that we’ll pass into the template, which holds the string placeholder that we want to include in the template.

Now that we have our template created, we need to write the python code that fills in the placeholder values in the template with what you need. You do this with the render function. Say, we want to create a version of the template where the name is “Mark”. Then write the following code:

https://gist.github.com/marknagelberg/91766668fcb668c702c9080387d96538

Now, outputText holds a string of the template where {{ name }} is now equal to “Mark”. You can confirm this by writing the following on the command line:

The arguments to template.render() are the placeholder variables contained in the template along with what you want to assign them to:

template.render(placeholder_variable_in_template1=value_you_want_it_assigned1, placeholder_variable_in_template2=value_you_want_it_assigned2, ..., placeholder_variable_in_templateN=value_you_want_it_assignedN)

There is much much more you can to with Jinja2 templates. For example, we have only shown how to render a simple variable here but Jinja2 allows more complex expressions, such as for loops, if-else statements, and template inheritance. Another useful fact about Jinja2 templates is you can pass in arbitrary python objects like lists, dictionaries, or pandas data frames and you are able to use the objects directly in the template. Check out Jinja2 Template Designer Documentation for a full list of features. I also highly recommend the book Flask Web Development: Developing Web Applications with Python which includes an excellent guide on Jinja2 templates (which are the built-in template engine for the Flask web development framework).

Creating PDF Reports

Let’s say you want to print PDFs of tables that show the growth of a bank account. Each table shows the growth rate year by year of $100, $500, $20,000, and $50,000 dollars. Each separate pdf report uses a different interest rate to calculate the growth rate. We’ll need 10 different reports, each of which prints tables with 1%, 2%, 3%, …, 10% interest rates, respectively.

Lets first define the Pandas Dataframes that we need.

https://gist.github.com/marknagelberg/a302de8904f0a5f3e3f739be84723dd3

data_frames contains 10 dictionaries, each of which contain the data frame and the interest rate used to produce that data frame.

Next, we create the template file. We will generate one report for each of the 10 data frames above, and generate them by passing each data frame to the template along with the interest rate used. 

https://gist.github.com/marknagelberg/9018e3a1bb9ad9d6da1b8b31468e5364

After creating this template, we then write the following code to produce 10 HTML files for our reports.

https://gist.github.com/marknagelberg/cb31ff6c2902e33bea22898c828bab80

Our HTML reports now look something like this:

As a final step, we need to convert these HTML files to PDFs. To do this, we use pdfkit. All you have to do is iterate through your HTML files and then use a single line of code from pdfkit to each file to convert it into a pdf.

https://gist.github.com/marknagelberg/a72f5d5ada749c64980139466619b312

All of this code combined will pop out the following HTML files with PDF versions:

You can then click on 1.pdf to see that we’re getting the results we’re looking for.

We’ve given a very stripped down example of how you can create reports using python in an automated way. With more work, you can develop much more sophisticated reports limited only by what’s possible with HTML.